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Galatians - Freedom in Christ, Faith Working Through Love, and New Creation

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Galatians begins with startling urgency. Before Paul names the crisis, he names its answer: Jesus Christ “gave Himself for our sins, that He might deliver us from this present evil age” (Galatians 1:4). The letter’s severity grows from that mercy. A teaching that makes circumcision and Torah observance necessary for Gentile covenant belonging does more than add a religious practice. It shifts confidence away from the Son who gave Himself, fractures the table where Jew and Gentile have been received together, and turns freedom back into bondage.

Paul therefore defends the one Gospel in which Christ gives Himself, fulfills the promise to Abraham, redeems from the curse, clothes the baptized with Himself, and opens the inheritance of sons who receive His Spirit from the Father. This Gospel does not produce passive belief or private autonomy. It produces faith active through love, passions crucified with Christ, fallen members restored with gentleness, burdens carried together, and a people whose only boast is the Cross. Galatians moves from deliverance to communion, from promise to sonship, from freedom to service, and from the Cross to new creation.

The Letter, Its Churches, and Its Historical Tension

The letter identifies its author as Paul, “an apostle, not from men nor through man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father who raised Him from the dead” (Galatians 1:1). His authority is neither self-invented nor merely institutional. It comes from the risen Christ, yet it does not lead him into isolation. Paul visits Peter and James, brings his Gospel into visible apostolic fellowship, receives the right hand of communion from James, Cephas, and John, and remembers the poor (Galatians 1:18-2:10). Revelation and Church communion belong together.

Paul writes to several “churches of Galatia” (Galatians 1:2). The exact audience remains disputed. “Galatia” may point to ethnic Galatians farther north or to communities in the Roman province farther south. The letter itself does not settle the question. The exact date, the identity of every opponent, and the relationship between Paul’s Jerusalem visit in Galatians 2 and the visits narrated in Acts also remain disputed.

The secure geography lies inside Paul’s own account. Jerusalem is the place of apostolic consultation and recognition, but not the human source of Paul’s Gospel. Antioch is where Gospel communion is tested at the table. Arabia, Damascus, Syria, and Cilicia place Paul’s calling in real history while resisting a purely private-revelation reading (Galatians 1:17-21; 2:1-14). The letter’s theology is never disembodied. It unfolds through journeys, consultations, meals, bodies, wounds, and churches.

Paul’s Argument from Deliverance to New Creation

Galatians 1:1-2:14: the Gospel from Christ creates visible communion

Paul begins with Christ’s self-gift and deliverance, then refuses to recognize any distorted message as another valid Gospel (Galatians 1:4-9). His autobiography is not self-promotion. The persecutor is called by grace, the Son is revealed in him, and the churches glorify God in him (Galatians 1:13-24). Grace redirects zeal instead of merely lowering its intensity.

The Jerusalem meeting shows that Paul’s Gospel is not an independent religious project. Titus is not compelled to be circumcised. The apostles recognize grace, extend fellowship, distinguish fields of mission without dividing the Gospel, and join doctrine to remembrance of the poor (Galatians 2:1-10). At Antioch, that fellowship is tested bodily. Peter’s withdrawal from Gentile tables makes belonging appear conditional, and Paul confronts the public conduct because it is “not straightforward about the truth of the gospel” (Galatians 2:14). A creed can remain verbally intact while fear contradicts it through seating, withdrawal, hospitality, and social pressure.

Galatians 2:15-4:31: life and inheritance come in the crucified Son

The Antioch dispute opens into the theological center of the letter. Jew and Gentile are set right before God through Christ, not through works of the Law treated as the basis of righteousness and covenant belonging (Galatians 2:15-16). Paul’s answer is participatory: “I have been crucified with Christ; it is no longer I who live, but Christ lives in me” (Galatians 2:20). Justification cannot be reduced to self-salvation or to an external label detached from union with Christ. The believer is set right in the Son who loved him and gave Himself for him, and that life becomes embodied faith, repentance, and obedience.

Paul then recalls the Galatians to their own reception of the Spirit and to Abraham’s faith (Galatians 3:1-9). The promise precedes Sinai. Christ enters the place of curse to redeem, not because the Law is evil or because the Father turns against the Son, but so that Abraham’s blessing and the promised Spirit may come to the nations (Galatians 3:10-14). The Law is holy, purposeful, temporary, diagnostic, restraining, and pedagogical. It exposes transgression and guards a people awaiting Christ, but it cannot give resurrection life (Galatians 3:15-25).

The argument reaches baptismal sonship. Those baptized into Christ have put on Christ; Jew and Greek, slave and free, male and female receive one Christ and one inheritance in Him (Galatians 3:26-29). The Father sends the pre-existent Son, truly “born of a woman, born under the law,” to redeem and give adoption. This woman is the Virgin Mary, the Theotokos: the Son receives real humanity from her, entering the life He comes to heal. The Church hears this passage at the Paramoune of the Nativity. The Father also sends the Spirit of His Son into the heart, crying, “Abba, Father” (Galatians 4:4-7). Salvation is Trinitarian and filial: the Father sends, the Son enters and redeems, and the Spirit gives the prayer of sons and heirs.

Paul’s tone becomes parental and maternal in Galatians 4. He fears for the churches, recalls their former love, exposes manipulative zeal, and labors “until Christ is formed” in them (Galatians 4:8-20). The Hagar and Sarah allegory then returns the argument to promise and freedom. Paul reads Genesis as real history bearing an apostolic pattern, but his allegory cannot license contempt for Hagar, Jewish people, or the Old Covenant. The controlling conclusion is that believers are children of promise and must not exchange Christ’s freedom for bondage (Galatians 4:21-31).

Galatians 5:1-6:10: freedom takes the form of love in the Spirit

“Stand fast therefore in the liberty by which Christ has made us free” (Galatians 5:1) begins the letter’s sustained account of Christian freedom. Circumcision is not condemned as a bodily act or Jewish practice in itself. Paul opposes receiving it as a covenant necessity that obligates the Gentile convert to the whole Law as the basis of standing. In Christ, neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is the center. What avails is “faith working through love” (Galatians 5:6).

That phrase prevents two opposite errors. Faith is not self-justifying performance, but neither is it idle opinion. It becomes active through self-giving love. Freedom therefore becomes voluntary service: “through love serve one another” (Galatians 5:13). The Spirit does not free the believer from moral seriousness. He frees the believer for a healed life in which the passions no longer rule.

Paul’s contrast between flesh and Spirit must not become contempt for the body. The works of the flesh include sexual sin, but also idolatry, hatred, rivalry, jealousy, wrath, selfish ambition, division, envy, drunkenness, and more (Galatians 5:19-21). “Flesh” names the fallen person turned from the Spirit, not created human embodiment as evil. The Spirit saves and heals the whole person. His singular “fruit” appears as love, joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control (Galatians 5:22-23). St Irenaeus insists that the spiritual person is the union of flesh and spirit receiving the Spirit of God, not a soul delivered from embodiment.1

Galatians 6 makes this fruit communal. The spiritual person restores the fallen gently and watches himself. Believers bear one another’s burdens while each still carries his own responsibility. They support those who teach, sow to the Spirit, refuse to grow weary in doing good, and care for all, especially the household of faith (Galatians 6:1-10). Freedom has become a parish ethic of healing, responsibility, generosity, and perseverance.

Galatians 6:11-18: the Cross is the boast of new creation

Paul’s own hand recapitulates the whole letter. The false teachers compel outward conformity, avoid persecution for the Cross, and boast in other people’s flesh. Paul boasts only in “the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ,” through which the world has been crucified to him and he to the world (Galatians 6:14). “World” here does not mean creation, family, work, or the body. It is the old order of praise, status, display, and fear that has lost its claim over him.

Circumcision and uncircumcision yield to “a new creation” (Galatians 6:15). This newness begins in baptismal renewal, governs a Cross-shaped life, and points toward final incorruption. Paul closes with peace, mercy, the marks of Jesus in his body, and grace. His scars answer those who avoid the cost of the Cross, but they should not be sensationalized into a theory of extraordinary signs. The wounded apostle ends by calling the Galatians “brethren” and blessing their spirit with the grace of Christ.

The Pastoral Voice of the Apostle

Galatians is urgent, but Paul’s voice is not uniformly combative. His severity has a pastoral sequence. He begins with grace and Christ’s self-gift, then names the distortion. He places himself under the same Gospel standard when he says that even he or an angel must not preach another message (Galatians 1:8). He recounts his past so that God is glorified, not so that his personality becomes the center.

At Antioch he corrects publicly because the harm is public, not because every disagreement belongs before a crowd. In Galatians 4 he speaks as a father and as a mother in labor. In Galatians 5 he warns sharply yet says, “I have confidence in you, in the Lord” (Galatians 5:10). At the end he shows his scars and gives grace. Christian correction in the spirit of Galatians names danger without enjoying accusation, protects communion without hiding truth, and seeks Christ’s formation in the hearer rather than dependence on the teacher.

St John Chrysostom is a particularly faithful reader of this rhetoric. On Galatians 4:11, he hears alarm without despair: they still have power to return to their former calm.2 On 4:19, he sees Paul as “a mother trembling for her children,” laboring to restore Christ’s likeness in them.3 On Galatians 6:1, he notices that Paul does not say “chastise” or “judge,” but “set right.”4 The letter’s sharpest words must therefore be taught as medicine for communion, never as permission for vanity, humiliation, or religious aggression.

Christology: The Son Who Gives Himself and Forms His People

Christ is not confined to Galatians 2:20 and 6:14. He governs the entire letter.

  • He is the risen Lord through whom Paul is commissioned, and the One who gives Himself for sins and deliverance (Galatians 1:1-5).
  • He is the content and source of revelation, the Son whom God reveals in Paul (Galatians 1:11-16).
  • He is the crucified One who lives in the believer and whose faithful self-gift grounds the believer’s faith (Galatians 2:19-20).
  • He redeems from the curse by entering the cursed place for us without becoming evil and without division in the Holy Trinity (Galatians 3:13-14).
  • He is Paul’s promised Seed in whom Abraham’s inheritance reaches the nations (Galatians 3:16-18).
  • He is the pre-existent Son sent by the Father, truly born of a woman and under the Law, to redeem and give adoption (Galatians 4:4-5).
  • He is the One who forms His life in the Church, makes freedom possible, and turns the Cross into the only true boast (Galatians 4:19; 5:1; 6:14-15).

The singular “Seed” in Galatians 3:16 is Paul’s apostolic Christological reading of the Abrahamic promise. It should not be presented as a simplistic grammatical claim that a collective noun cannot refer to many descendants. Paul gathers the promise in the Messiah and then declares that all who belong to Christ are Abraham’s seed and heirs according to promise (Galatians 3:29).

The NKJV renders πίστεως Χριστοῦ in Galatians 2:16 as “faith in Christ”; the Greek phrase can also be read as “the faithfulness of Christ.” In either reading, Christ’s faithful self-gift grounds our hope, and Paul plainly adds that “we have believed in Christ Jesus.” The Son’s fidelity and the believer’s grace-enabled trust belong together.

The Church Grace Creates

Galatians does not oppose grace to the Church. It opposes every attempt to make a human badge, status, or pressure system the ground of belonging in Christ.

The addressees are churches, and Paul writes with brethren (Galatians 1:2). His revealed Gospel enters visible apostolic communion (Galatians 2:1-10). The right hand of fellowship recognizes distinct missions in one Gospel, and remembrance of the poor shows that communion has an economic and merciful form. Antioch reveals that doctrine is enacted at the table. Social withdrawal can deny in conduct what the creed still confesses.

Baptism gives the Church one Christ, one sonship, and one inheritance without erasing persons, embodied difference, or vocation (Galatians 3:26-29). Paul’s “neither Jew nor Greek, neither slave nor free, neither male nor female” cannot be reduced to minimal equal access, nor detached from baptism. The baptized are clothed with the same Lord. No ethnicity, social class, sex, education, family history, or visible ministry grants a superior claim on Christ.

The Church formed by this Gospel restores rather than discards, bears burdens rather than admires self-sufficiency, supports teachers without turning ministry into celebrity, and does good beyond its own natural circles (Galatians 6:1-10). Discipline aims at healing. Restoration must never conceal abuse, bypass safeguarding, or pressure a wounded person into unsafe reconciliation. Gentleness is not avoidance of truth; it is truth governed by the Spirit’s fruit.

Sacramental and Ascetical Life

Galatians rejects self-justifying religious performance while affirming a life deeply sacramental and ascetical. The contrast is not grace versus obedience. It is grace versus every attempt to replace Christ as the source of righteousness, belonging, and life.

Galatians 2:20 is participation: the believer is crucified with Christ, Christ lives in him, and embodied life becomes faith in the Son who loved him. Baptism makes this union explicit. “As many of you as were baptized into Christ have put on Christ” (Galatians 3:27) names a real new belonging, not an ornamental metaphor. Chrysostom says the baptized person has the Son within and is fashioned after His pattern.5 Galatians 4:4-7 gives adoption its Trinitarian shape, and St Athanasius protects its meaning: Christ is Son by nature; creatures become sons by grace through the Spirit of the true Son.6

The shared table at Antioch carries sacramental implications even though Paul is describing an ordinary meal. The Church cannot receive one Eucharistic Christ while tolerating social patterns that make some baptized members appear conditionally welcome. Likewise, Paul’s cry “Abba, Father” belongs to the Spirit of the Son in the heart, so prayer is not self-generated confidence but participation in the Son’s filial life. St Cyril of Alexandria uses Galatians 4:6 to confess that the same Spirit is of the Father and the Son.7

Ascetic struggle belongs naturally to Galatians 5. Fasting, confession, watchfulness, prayer, almsgiving, prostrations, and obedience do not complete by human strength what the Spirit supposedly failed to finish. They are grace-enabled ways of refusing the passions and learning to walk in step with the Spirit. Their test is not visible severity but fruit: greater love, patience, gentleness, self-control, truthfulness, and mercy.

Israel’s Scriptures, Promise, and Law

Paul argues from Israel’s Scriptures, not against them. Genesis 12:3 and 15:6 ground the blessing of the nations and Abraham’s faith. Deuteronomy 27:26, Habakkuk 2:4, Leviticus 18:5, and Deuteronomy 21:23 shape his account of Law, curse, faith, and the tree. Genesis 16-21 and Isaiah 54:1 stand behind Hagar, Sarah, and the Jerusalem above. Leviticus 19:18 becomes the one word fulfilled in neighbor-love.

This scriptural density blocks anti-Jewish readings. The nations are blessed with Abraham, not against him. The Law is not wicked; it is unable to give the resurrection life that sinners need. Circumcision is central because some teachers were imposing it as covenant necessity, but “works of the Law” should not be narrowed until Paul’s appeal to the Law’s whole demand in Galatians 3:10 and 5:3 disappears. A careful summary is better: Paul opposes Torah observance treated as the covenant basis of justification and belonging, with circumcision functioning as the decisive imposed marker in this crisis.

Paul reads Israel’s Scriptures as a coherent witness to promise, Christ, faith, love, and the gathering of the nations. Their Greek form, the Septuagint, makes several connections clearer. His appeal to Abraham’s faith follows the wording of Genesis 15:6 closely. In the quotation about hanging on a tree, he omits Deuteronomy 21:23’s words “of God.” And Exodus 12:40 includes sojourning in Canaan as well as Egypt within the 430 years, helping explain his reckoning from promise to Law. The studies on Abraham’s faith, redemption from the curse, and the enduring promise unfold these connections.8

Greek Words That Carry the Letter’s Argument

A few Greek terms disclose the letter’s logic without turning the overview into a lexicon.

  • ἐξαιρέω (exaireō), deliver or rescue, and αἰών (aiōn), age in Galatians 1:4. Christ rescues from the fallen age’s lordship; Paul is not condemning creation.
  • δικαιόω (dikaioō), justify or set right, and πίστεως Χριστοῦ (pisteōs Christou) in Galatians 2:16. The passage joins Christ’s self-gift, the believer’s faith, and a new Jew-Gentile communion.
  • συνεσταύρωμαι (synestaurōmai), I have been crucified with, in Galatians 2:20. The completed crucifixion carries continuing reality in the believer’s life.
  • παιδαγωγός (paidagōgos), guardian or tutor; ἐνδύω (endyō), clothe; and υἱοθεσία (huiothesia), adoption as sons, in Galatians 3:24-4:5. The sequence moves from temporary guardianship to baptismal clothing and filial inheritance.
  • ἐλευθερία (eleutheria), freedom; ἐνεργέω (energeō), become active; and ἀγάπη (agapē), self-giving love, in Galatians 5:1-13. Christ’s freedom becomes faith active through love, then loving service.9
  • περιπατέω (peripateō), walk; στοιχέω (stoicheō), keep in step; and καρπός (karpos), fruit, in Galatians 5:16-25. The Spirit gives life and orders daily conduct; fruit grows from a living root.
  • καταρτίζω (katartizō), restore or mend; βάρος (baros), shared burden; and φορτίον (phortion), personal load, in Galatians 6:1-5. Mercy and responsibility are neither rivals nor substitutes.10
  • καινὴ κτίσις (kainē ktisis), new creation; κανών (kanōn), rule; and στίγματα (stigmata), marks, in Galatians 6:15-17. The Cross establishes a new creation, a pattern of life, and wounded apostolic faithfulness.

Patristic Witnesses to Galatians

St John Chrysostom’s direct commentary is the controlling patristic witness for the letter.11 He consistently protects Paul from caricature. The Law is not the adversary of grace but its preparatory fellow-worker; it becomes harmful only when used to hold believers under guardianship after Christ has come.12 Baptism is not decorative clothing but participation in the Son. Freedom is not lawlessness but life bound by the lighter and stronger yoke of love. Flesh is not the created body but the fallen direction of the will. Restoration seeks to mend rather than humiliate. The Cross, shameful to the world, becomes the Church’s boast because it reveals Christ’s immeasurable love.13

Other Fathers deepen particular claims. Irenaeus guards the goodness and salvation of the embodied person. Athanasius distinguishes Christ’s natural Sonship from our adoption by grace. Cyril of Alexandria joins union with Christ to reformed life and confesses the Spirit as the Spirit of the Father and the Son. Justin Martyr protects Galatians 3:13 from the claim that Christ became morally evil or was cursed by the Father: the sinless Christ bears and breaks the curse that held sinners.14

Chrysostom’s central insight is pastoral as much as doctrinal: Paul can warn, grieve, hope, restore, and bless because he wants Christ, not Paul, to be formed in the churches.

Galatians in Coptic Worship

The Church hears Galatians across the year, in joy and repentance, beside the sick and before the Cross. The same Gospel takes flesh in each setting: the Son gives Himself, the Spirit makes us children of the Father, and freedom becomes love.

  • The Nativity: At the Paramoune, the Church reads Galatians 3:15-4:18; on Kiahk 30, the second day of the feast, she reads 4:19-5:1. The Son born of the Virgin Mary, the Theotokos, comes to give us adoption. The second day’s reading carries the feast into the heart: Paul labors until Christ is formed in His people.15
  • The Cross: On Tout 18, the second day of the Feast of the Cross, the reading is Galatians 6:11-18. The Katameros of the Holy Pascha also appoints 6:14-18 at the Sixth Hour of Good Friday and 3:1-6 at the Eleventh Hour. Paul’s only boast is the Cross; the Christ portrayed before the eyes of faith is the crucified Lord. His self-offering remains the source of our life, not a beginning we outgrow.16
  • The Holy Fifty Days and Great Lent: Galatians 3:5-11 is read on Saturday of the third week of the Holy Fifty Days, returning the Church to the Spirit God supplies and Abraham’s blessing. Galatians 5:16-6:2 is read on Saturday of the fifth week of Great Lent. Walking in the Spirit reaches its test in the gentle restoration of the fallen and the bearing of another’s burden.17, 18
  • The Sundays: The Second Sunday of Abib brings Galatians 1:1-24, in the month of the shared feast of Sts. Peter and Paul. The Second Sunday of Toba brings 5:2-10 alongside the apostles’ refusal to impose circumcision on Gentiles in Acts 15:22-29 and the call to love in deed and truth in 1 John 3:18-24. Freedom, apostolic communion, and active love belong together.19, 20
  • The saints: Galatians 1:1-19 accompanies eight saints’ commemorations, including martyrs’ feasts, the consecration of a church, and the return of St. Macarius’s body to Scetis. The opening study names them. These different lives are gathered under the same confession: the Gospel comes from Christ, and its servant belongs to Him.21
  • The sick: At the Fifth Prayer of the Unction of the Sick, the Church reads Galatians 2:16-20. The words “Christ lives in me” are proclaimed amid illness and prayer with holy oil. The sufferer’s weakness does not remove him from the Son who loved him and gave Himself for him.22

Paul’s warning about observing days in Galatians 4:10 concerns seeking covenant standing apart from Christ. Feasts and fasts ordered toward His Incarnation, Cross, and Resurrection have another purpose: they gather us into His saving life. Their fruit is neither pride in observance nor contempt for the body, but repentance, thanksgiving, and mercy.

Spiritual Fruit 🍇

Galatians asks where a Christian seeks proof that he belongs. The answer cannot be ethnicity, reputation, religious performance, visible discipline, a leader’s approval, or freedom understood as self-rule. The Son has given Himself, and belonging begins there.

That grace is not inert. It crucifies the old life, clothes the baptized with Christ, teaches the heart to cry to the Father, and makes faith active through love. It exposes the desire to use religion for status. It corrects tables where some believers are made to feel conditionally welcome. It trains the body and soul through Spirit-led ascetic struggle. It restores the fallen, carries the weary, remembers the poor, and keeps doing good when the harvest is delayed.

This week, notice one moment when you seek proof of belonging through approval, visible discipline, or being right. Name it before Christ in prayer. Then put faith to work in one hidden act of love: share a burden, make room at your table, or gently help someone without making that person your project. Freedom reaches maturity when Christ is formed in His people and the Church begins to look like new creation.

Lord Jesus Christ, You gave Yourself to deliver us. Free me from the need to earn a place beside You; teach me to walk by Your Spirit and to love the person You have placed before me. Amen.

Study Session Map

SessionPassageTitleControlling aim
1Galatians 1:1-10Grace, Deliverance, and No Other GospelGround the letter’s severity in Christ’s self-gift and deliverance.
2Galatians 1:11-24The Gospel Received from ChristShow revelation transforming zeal and leading to doxology in the Church.
3Galatians 2:1-10The Right Hand of Fellowship and the PoorHold Gospel truth, apostolic communion, Gentile freedom, and mercy together.
4Galatians 2:11-14The Truth of the Gospel at the TableExpose conduct that contradicts confessed communion.
5Galatians 2:15-21Crucified with ChristTeach justification as life received in union with the crucified Son.
6Galatians 3:1-9The Spirit, Faith, and Abraham’s BlessingRecall the churches to the Spirit received by faith and the promise to the nations.
7Galatians 3:10-14Christ Redeems Us from the CurseExplain Law, curse, tree, redemption, blessing, and Spirit without distorting the Trinity.
8Galatians 3:15-22The Promise That Cannot Be AnnulledHonor the Law’s role while locating inheritance in the promise fulfilled in Christ.
9Galatians 3:23-29Clothed with Christ: Baptismal UnityRead unity through Baptism, sonship, one Christ, and one inheritance.
10Galatians 4:1-7From Slaves to Sons: Abba, FatherConfess the Incarnation, adoption, and the Spirit’s filial prayer.
11Galatians 4:8-20Formed in Christ: Paul’s Pastoral AnguishDistinguish manipulative zeal from labor that forms Christ in people.
12Galatians 4:21-31Hagar, Sarah, and the Jerusalem AboveTeach apostolic allegory, promise, and freedom without contempt.
13Galatians 5:1-12Stand Fast: Circumcision, Christ, and FreedomDefine the circumcision crisis and faith active through love.
14Galatians 5:13-26Freedom Through Love and the Fruit of the SpiritShow freedom becoming service, ascetic struggle, and Spirit-grown virtue.
15Galatians 6:1-10Restore, Bear, SowMake the fruit of the Spirit concrete in restoration, burden-bearing, and patient good.
16Galatians 6:11-18Boasting Only in the Cross and New CreationEnd with the Cross, new creation, wounded faithfulness, peace, mercy, and grace.

Footnotes

  1. St Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies 5.8.2, ccel.org. ↩

  2. St John Chrysostom, Commentary on Galatians, on Galatians 4:11, Chapter IV. ↩

  3. St John Chrysostom, Commentary on Galatians, on Galatians 4:19, Chapter IV. ↩

  4. St John Chrysostom, Commentary on Galatians, on Galatians 6:1, ccel.org. ↩

  5. St John Chrysostom, Commentary on Galatians, on Galatians 3:27-29, ccel.org. ↩

  6. St Athanasius, Four Discourses Against the Arians 2.59, ccel.org. ↩

  7. St Cyril of Alexandria, Commentary on the Gospel of John, Book 10, on John 14:23, tertullian.org. ↩

  8. Brenton, English Septuagint, Genesis 15:6, Deuteronomy 21:23, and Exodus 12:40. ↩

  9. BibleHub Greek Interlinear, Galatians 5:6 and 5:13, with lexical entries for ἐνεργέω and ἀγάπη, biblehub.com and biblehub.com. ↩

  10. BibleHub Greek Interlinear, Galatians 6:1-5, with lexical entries for καταρτίζω, βάρος, and φορτίον, biblehub.com, biblehub.com, biblehub.com, and biblehub.com. ↩

  11. St John Chrysostom, Commentary on Galatians, ccel.org. ↩

  12. St John Chrysostom, Commentary on Galatians, on Galatians 3:23-26, ccel.org. ↩

  13. St John Chrysostom, Commentary on Galatians, on Galatians 6:14, ccel.org. ↩

  14. St Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 94 and Chapter 95. ↩

  15. Coptic Orthodox lectionary, Paramoune of the Nativity, Galatians 3:15-4:18, and Kiahk 30, Galatians 4:19-5:1. ↩

  16. St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church, Ottawa, The Katameros of the Holy Pascha, English edition, Lent 1734 A.M. (2018), Good Friday Sixth Hour, p. 585, and Eleventh Hour, p. 629; Coptic Orthodox lectionary, Tout 18, Galatians 6:11-18. ↩

  17. Coptic Orthodox lectionary, Saturday of the third week of the Holy Fifty Days, Galatians 3:5-11. ↩

  18. Coptic Orthodox lectionary, Saturday of the fifth week of Great Lent, Pauline reading Galatians 5:16-6:2, copticchurch.net. ↩

  19. Coptic Orthodox lectionary, Second Sunday of Abib, Galatians 1:1-24; Coptic Synaxarium, Abib 5, martyrdom of Sts. Peter and Paul. ↩

  20. Coptic Orthodox lectionary, Second Sunday of Toba, Pauline reading Galatians 5:2-10, copticchurch.net. ↩

  21. Coptic Orthodox lectionary and Synaxarium, Baba 29; Hator 5 and 27; Kiahk 16; Abib 23; Mesra 10, 17, and 19. See the appointments and commemorations in Galatians 1:1-10. ↩

  22. Coptic Orthodox Church, Unction of the Sick, Fifth Prayer, Pauline Epistle, Galatians 2:16-20; Coptic Reader, Special Services, Unction of the Sick. ↩

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